Aspectos neuropsicológicos del trastorno afectivo bipolar / Neuropsychological Aspects of Bipolar Disorder

RESUMEN El trastorno afectivo bipolar (TAB) es una entidad crónica con graves efectos para la salud y la funcionalidad de los pacientes que la sufren, con una alta carga de heredabilidad y segregabilidad y una prevalencia que oscila entre el 1 y el 2%. Las alteraciones neuropsicológicas son características importantes relacionadas con su pronóstico, por lo cual se hizo una revisión narrativa sobre estas alteraciones, los factores asociados y sus consecuencias funcionales. Se ha determinado que la presencia de alteraciones neuropsicológicas puede variar en los pacientes con TAB según la fase anímica en que se encuentren, con una gran influencia de los síntomas depresivos en la variabilidad cognitiva de los pacientes respecto a la población general y diferencias respecto a los pacientes en fase maniaca. En pacientes eutímicos, los dominios cognitivos más afectados son los de memoria, atención y función ejecutiva, asociados con una enfermedad más grave, factores sociodemográficos de vulne rabilidad y sin interacción con el tiempo de evolución. Se ha encontrado una relación entre el mal rendimiento cognitivo, especialmente la disfunción ejecutiva y el déficit funcional objetivo; además, se han perfilado diferencias cognitivas entre el TAB y otras enfermedades mentales graves que se describen en la revisión.

ABSTRACT Bipolar disorder (BD) is a chronic condition with serious consequences on the health and functionality of patients who suffer from it, with a high heritability and segregation, and a prevalence of between 1% and 2%. Neuropsychological deficits have been implicated as a very important issue related to BD prognosis, so a review was conducted of these deficits, the related factors and their functional consequences. It has been determined that the presence of neuropsychological deficits can vary in patients with BD according to their mood state, with a great influence of depressive symptoms on the cognitive variability of patients with respect to the general population and differences with respect to patients in the manic phase. In euthymic patients, the most affected cognitive domains are those of memory, attention, and executive function, associated with a more severe disease, sociodemographic vulnerability factors, and stable over time. A relationship has been found between poor cognitive performance, especially executive dysfunction, and objective functional deficit. Furthermore, cognitive differences have been outlined between BD and other serious mental illnesses that are described in the review.

Resonancia magnética nuclear funcional en estado de reposo en pacientes con trastorno bipolar: más allá de la eutimia / Resting-state functional nuclear magnetic resonance imaging in patients with bipolar disorder: beyond euthymia

Resumen Introducción: La resonancia magnética funcional en estado de reposo (RMf-ER) permite identificar redes de conectividad funcional completas y los posibles correlatos neuronales de trastornos psiquiátricos. Se revisa la literatura sobre RMf-ER y trastorno bipolar (TB) haciendo énfasis en los hallazgos en las fases de manía, hipomanía y depresión. Métodos: Es una revisión narrativa de la literatura en la que se buscaron artículos en PubMed y EMBASE con las palabras clave en inglés "bipolar disorder" AND "resting state", sin límite en la fecha de publicación. Resultados: Los estudios de pacientes con TB en fases de manía e hipomanía sometidos a RMf-ER muestran resultados concordantes en cuanto a la disminución de la conectividad funcional cerebral entre la amígdala y algunas regiones corticales, lo cual indica que esta conexión funcional tendría alguna implicación en la regulación normal del afecto. Los pacientes en fase depresiva muestran disminución en la conectividad funcional cerebral, pero como son varias las estructuras anatómicas implicadas y las redes neuronales reportadas en los estudios, no es posible compararlos. Conclusiones: Hay disminución en la conectividad funcional en los pacientes con TB, pero la evidencia actual no permite establecer cambios específicos en redes de conectividad funcional cerebral puntuales. Sin embargo, ya hay algunos hallazgos que muestran correlación con la clínica de los pacientes.

ABSTRACT Introduction: imaging in the resting state (R-fMRI) Functional nuclear magnetic allows the identification of complete functional connectivity networks and the possible resonance neuronal correlations of psychiatric disorders. The literature on R-fMRI and bipolar disorder (BD) will be reviewed, emphasising the findings in the phases of mania, hypomania and depression. Methods: It is a narrative review of the literature in which articles were searched in PubMed and Embase, with the key words in English "bipolar disorder" AND "resting state", without limit on the date of publication. Results: The studies of BD patients in the mania and hypomania phases who underwent R-fMRI show concordant results in terms of decreased functional cerebral connectivity between the amygdala and some cortical regions, which indicates that this functional connection would have some implication in the normal affect regulation. Patients in the depressive phase show a decrease in functional brain connectivity, but as there are seve-ral anatomical structures involved and neural networks reported in the studies, it is not possible to compare them. Conclusions: There is a decrease in functional connectivity in patients with BD, but current evidence does not allow establishing specific changes in specific functional brain connectivity networks. However, there are already some findings that show correlation with the patients' symptoms.

Función ejecutiva en pacientes con trastorno bipolar tipo I durante la fase asintomática / Executive functions in patients with bipolar disorder type I during asymptomatic phase

La función ejecutiva se ve involucrada en la mayor parte de las actividades que realizamos a diario, repercutiendo en la calidad de vida de las personas. Los rendimientos ejecutivos en el trastorno bipolar tipo I pueden fluctuar en función de la fase clínica en la que se encuentra el paciente. El objetivo de este trabajo se centra en revisar los hallazgos encontrados respecto a la función ejecutiva durante la fase asintomática del trastorno bipolar tipo I. Se han analizado 37 artículos científicos que abordan el rendimiento ejecutivo de pacientes eutímicos con trastorno bipolar tipo I. Se puede concluir que la mayoría de los estudios reportan dificultades ejecutivas en estos pacientes, aunque no parece existir consenso en los diferentes trabajos al indicar el tipo de déficit. Esta falta de acuerdo podría ser debida a aspectos metodológicos de los estudios y a distintas variables clínicas y farmacológicas. Las alteraciones ejecutivas en la eutimia son menores que en las fases agudas del trastorno y afectan sobre todo a la velocidad de procesamiento de la información. Los déficits ejecutivos de los pacientes podrían estar vinculados a posibles alteraciones funcionales a nivel de la corteza prefrontal, así como al propio efecto de los psicofármacos utilizados. Sería de especial relevancia que el tratamiento de estos pacientes incorporase estas alteraciones, lo que podría conseguirse mediante un enfoque neurocognitivo dentro de un abordaje terapéutico integrado...

Executive function is present in most of dairy activities, so it influences in quality of life. Executive performances in bipolar disorder type I can change in function of clinical phase that patient is. The aim of this work is to review the studies that have investigated executive function during asymptomatic phase in bipolar disorder type I. It has been analyzed 37 scientific articles that examine executive performance in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder type I. It can be concluded that bipolar patients in asymptomatic phase suffer executive difficulties, but it doesn’t seem to exist consensus regarding the type of deficits. This lack of agreement could be due to methodological diversity in studies, as well as the influence of different clinical or pharmacological variables. Executive alterations in euthymic phase are lower than the acute phases in bipolar disorder and affect mainly to processing speed. Executive deficits in patients could be linked to possible functional alterations in prefrontal cortex, as well as the psychopharmacological effect. It would be specially relevant treatment in bipolar disorder keep in mind this alterations, which it can get it with a neurocognitive approach within integrate treatment...

Comparación del funcionamiento cognitivo en pacientes con trastorno bipplar tipo II en eutimia vesus trastorno bippolar tipo I en eutimia y controles / Comparison of Cognitive Functioning in Bipolar Disorder Type II Patientes in Euthymia vs. Bippolar Disorder Type I in Euthymia and Controls

Introducción. El trastorno bipolar (TBP) se encuentra clasificado dentro de los trastornos del estado del ánimo, se trata de una enfermedad común, recurrente y severa que causa un impacto considerable en el bienestar del paciente y una significativa carga económica para el individuo y la sociedad. Según el DSM IV el TBP se puede clasificar en Tipo I y II, el TBP I se caracteriza por la presencia de un episodio de manía o mixto que se alterna con episodios de depresión. El TBP II se presenta con episodios de depresión y al menos un episodio de hipomanía. Se ha estimado que 30 a 50% de los pacientes con TBP en remisión fracasan en alcanzar el nivel premórbido de funcionamiento psicosocial y esta discapacidad puede estar asociada a alteraciones cognitivas. Varios estudios han reportado que estas alteraciones se presentan fundamentalmente durante los episodios, las principales están relacionadas con la memoria verbal y funciones ejecutivas, y estas deficiencias persisten aún cuando el paciente se encuentra en eutimia. Existen pocos estudios que comparen las diferencias en el funcionamiento cognitivo entre pacientes con TBP I y II, el conocer estas diferencias y su repercusión en la calidad de vida de los pacientes, nos permitirá desarrollar nuevas estrategias de tratamiento que se enfoquen en rehabilitar estas funciones acorde al perfil neuropsicológico de cada grupo. Objetivo. Comparar el funcionamiento cognitivo en pacientes con TBP I y II en eutimia y sujetos controles y determinar si existe relación con la calidad de vida percibida por los pacientes. Material y métodos. Estudio comparativo, transversal, homodémico Muestra: Pacientes del sexo masculino y femenino, edad 18-60 años con diagnóstico TBP II en eutimia los últimos 4 meses, con un puntaje <7 en la Escala de Depresión de Hamilton y <6 en la Escala de manía de Young. (n=18) Se excluyó: Pacientes con dependencia a alcohol y otras sustancias o antecedente de terapia electroconvulsiva ...

Bipolar Disorder (BPD) is classed among mood disorders. It is a common, recurrent and severe disease which causes considerable impact on the patient's wellbeing and an economic burden for the individual an society. According to the DSM IV, BPD can be classified into Type I and II. BPD Type I is characterized by the presence of a manic or mixed episode which alternates with depression episodes. BPD II is accompanied with depression episodes and at least one hypomanic episode. It has been estimated that 30 to 50 % of patients with remitting BPD fail to achieve the premorbid level of psychosocial functioning and this impairmet may be associated to congnitive alterations. Several studies have reported that these alterations mostly occur during the occurrence of the episodes. The main alterations are related to verbal memory and executive functions, and these deficiencies still persist when the patient is experiencing euthymia. Few studies have compared the differences in cognitive functioning between BPD I and BPD II patients. Knowing these differences and their impact on the patients' quality of life will enable us to develop new treatment strategies focused on adapting such strategies to the neuropsychological profile of each group of patient. Purpose: to compare the cognitive functioning between BPD I and BPD II patients with euthymia and control subjects, and to determine whether it is related with the patients' quality of life as perceived by them. Materials and methods: comparative, longitudinal, homodemic study. Sample: Male and female patients aged 18-60 years-old who had been diagnosed with BPD II in euthymia during the last 4 months, with a < 7 score in the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression and a < 6 score inthe Young Mania Rating Scale (n=18). Exclusion criteria: Patients with alcohol and other substances abuse, or with a history of electroconvulsive therapy during the previous year. Patients with a history of CVA or CET were also excluded ...

Resonancia magnética funcional en pacientes adultos eutímicos con trastorno bipolar tipo I: una visión neuropsicológica y neurofuncional / Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in euthymic Adult Patients with Bipolar Disorder Type I: Neuropsychological and Neurofunctional Aspects

Introducción: En la última década se han realizado varios estudios de resonancia magnética funcional en la fase eutímica del trastorno bipolar tipo I; por lo tanto, es necesario hacer una revisión crítica de los hallazgos reportados. Métodos: Revisión de la literatura, consistente en búsqueda, lectura y análisis de los estudios de resonancia magnética funcional en adultos eutímicos con trastorno bipolar tipo I en las bases de datos científicas PubMed, EMBASE, SciELO y Lilacs, sin límite cronológico. Resultados: Los hallazgos neuroanatómicos y neuropsicológicos se presentan en dos bloques: primero, memoria de trabajo con paradigmas N Back y Stenberg y, segundo, función ejecutiva con interferencia en atención selectiva o pruebas tipo Stroop (palabra/color, numérico y emocional) y control inhibitorio con pruebas go/no go. Conclusiones: Los resultados fueron contradictorios por diferencias en los paradigmas, criterios de inclusión, síntomas residuales, medicamentos e historia de psicoactivos. En pruebas Stroop y de memoria de trabajo se identificó una disfunción prefrontal en comparación con los controles (específicamente en la región dorsolateral), por lo que fue propuesta como un rasgo característico del trastorno. La región frontopolar (AB 10) parece ser clave en la disfunción frontal; por su parte, el cíngulo anterior, la corteza parietal y la prefrontal ventral necesitan ser replicadas en investigaciones posteriores en las que haya un mejor control de los factores de confusión.

Introduction: Several studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging during the euthymic phase of bipolar disorder type I have been performed in the last decade. A critical review of the findings is therefore required. Methods: The major databases (Pubmed, EMBASE, Lilacs, and Scielo) were consulted searching studies of fMRI in euthymic adults with Bipolar disorder type I without timeframe limits. Results: The neuroanatomical and neuropsycholo gical findings are presented in two parts: 1) working memory with N_back and Stenberg paradigms, and 2) Executive function with interference in selective attention or Stroop test (word / color, counting and emotional) and inhibitory control with go / no go tasks. Conclusions: The results were contradictory due to differences in paradigms, inclusion criteria, residual symptoms, and history of drugs. Prefrontal dysfunction was identified in the Stroop test and in working memory tasks compared with controls (specifically dorsolateral region) which has been proposed as a feature of the disorder. Frontopolar area (BA 10) appears to be important in frontal dysfunction. Findings in areas such as the anterior cingulate and parietal and ventral prefrontal cortex need to be replicated in subsequent research with a closer control of confounding factors.

Evaluación del componente afectivo de la depresión: análisis factorial del ST/DEP revisado

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Abstract: Depression is a main Public Health problem due to its high prevalence and to the costs for intervention and treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to identify strategies that allow an adequate assessment that would let us obtain a more precise and useful diagnosis. Nevertheless, animportant obstacle for this task, is a lack of theoretical clarity in regard to diagnostic criteria or, especially, to symptoms which are relevant for depression. This fact is obvious in the scales focused on depression assessment, which have a broad variety of symptoms to assess, and it is possible to overestimate some areas or to underestimate others, related to theoretical criterions which were involved in test construction. So, depression is evaluated in accordance with the questionnaire that is used and, of course, depending of theoretical framework that supports this tool. Therefore, depression is defined in line with the criteria which evaluates it, with regard to assessment s criteria, which could explain the usual difficulty to identify common symptoms when some tools are used, which are then identified as genuine symptoms of depression. As the aim of this paper is to improve some of this limitations, the State/Trait Depression Questionnaire (ST/DEP) is showed as an useful tool for clinical and research work. It offers an assessment of one of the component of depression, the affective one, providing two measures: State and Trait. This allows to differentiate between intensity and frequency. Main-axis factor analysis has been made and the results have shown two main factors in affectivity: Dysthymia (negative affection) and Euthymia (positive affection). The interest on positive affection assessment aims to obtain a more precise tool. So, when scores are inverted in positive items, it is possible to obtain a measurement of low levels on affectation. The relevance of this fact is emphasized because it has been neglected in most of depression scales, that only identify presence or absence, a fact that limits the ability to estimate slight modifications. This issue is very useful at two levels: clinic and research. At a clinical level because it permits to identify slight changes in affectation, which could be important as measurement oftherapeutic efficacyand ofsymptoms remission. In research, because it offers the possibility to dispose of one able tool to differenciate of low levels of affectation, which allow a more accurate estimation of the depression symptoms, specially when working with a nonclinical population. The present study was carried out with a sample of 300 participants (103 males and 197 females), with mean age of 21.82 (2.74 s.d.) for males and 22.26 (3.66 s.d.) for females. It was an instrumental study where the Spanish Experimental Version of Stat-Trait Depression (ST/DEP) was used. All participants received information about research and they answered the questionnaires voluntarily. The findings are shown separately for the two scales (State and Trait) and for the two sub-scales (Dysthymia and Euthymia). Data indicated significant differences between males and females, being the highest scores for females. This is an evidence related to the higher prevalence of depression in women. It is very important to remark that essentially the same strong state and trait factors were found for both males and females, according to the factor structure of the Spanish Experimental Version of the State-Trait Depression Questionnaire (ST/DEP). These factors explained the 54% variance for females and of 53% for males. The Promax Rotation differentiated two factors clearly: Dysthimia and Euthymia. That was similar to what was found in the original English form of the ST-DEP. The factorial structure was then confirmed, because of the bifactorial structure which differentiated the negative and positive affectivity of Depression. Another positive result was the test ability to detect slight changes on affectivity, which will be useful to differentiate between clinical and non clinical population. It is important to point out that the ST/DEP is a measurement of one component of depression: affectivity, which has been identified as a relevant component in this disorder, but this tool is not enough to diagnose depression. This fact is relevant, because some tools for depression assessment are used as a diagnostic criteria, a fact that increases confusion in making a differential diagnostic between anxiety and depression or some other symptoms and clinical problems. All this results provide evidences of the psychometric properties of the Spanish ST-DEP, and make this scale a fruitful and useful assessment instrument.